African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans or Afro-Americans) are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term African American generally denotes descendants of enslaved Africans who are from the United States, while some Black immigrants or their children may also come to identify (themselves) or be identified modifier - modifier le code - modifier Wikidata Le livre numérique (en anglais: ebook ou e-book), aussi connu sous les noms de livre électronique et de livrel, est un livre édité et diffusé en version numérique, disponible sous la forme de fichiers, qui peuvent être téléchargés et stockés pour être lus sur un écran, (ordinateur personnel, téléphone portable, liseuse Livres PDF. 3, likes · 1 talking about this · 1 was here. Livres PDF telecharger gratuit
African Americans - Wikipedia
African Americans also referred to as Black Americans or Afro-Americans [3] are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. Census Bureau definition of Black or African American refers to a person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa, although not all indigenous African populations fit this description.
African Americans constitute the third largest ethnic group and the second largest racial group in the US, norbert schirmer phd thesis, after White Americans and Hispanic and Latino Americans who can also be simultaneously Black, See: Black Hispanic and Latino Americans. Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American, norbert schirmer phd thesis.
African-American history began in the 16th century, with Africans from West Africa being sold to European slave traders and transported across the Atlantic to the Thirteen Colonies. After arriving in the Americas, they were sold as slaves to European colonists and put to work on plantationsparticularly in the southern colonies. A few were able to achieve freedom through manumission or escape and founded independent communities before and during the American Revolution.
After the United States was founded inmost Black people continued to be enslavedbeing most concentrated in the American Southwith four million enslaved only liberated during and at the end of the Civil War in These circumstances changed due to further development of the Black community, participation in the military conflicts of the United Statessubstantial migration out of the Souththe elimination of legal racial segregationand the civil rights movement which sought political and social freedom.
Innorbert schirmer phd thesis, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The vast majority of those who were enslaved and transported in the transatlantic slave trade were people from Central and West Africawho had been captured directly by the slave traders in coastal raids, [24] or sold by other West Africans, or by half-European "merchant princes" [25] to European slave traders, who brought them to the Americas.
The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony most likely located in the Winyah Bay area of present-day South Carolinafounded by Spanish explorer Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón in De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterward of an norbert schirmer phd thesis and the colony was abandoned.
The settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haitiwhence they had come. The marriage between Luisa de Abrego, a free Black domestic servant from Sevilleand Miguel Rodríguez, a White Segovian conquistador in in St. Augustine Spanish Floridais the first known and recorded Christian marriage anywhere in what is now the continental United States.
The first recorded Africans in English Norbert schirmer phd thesis including most of the future United States were "20 and odd negroes" who came to JamestownVirginia via Cape Comfort in August as indentured servants. An indentured servant who could be White or Black would work for several years usually four to seven without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, norbert schirmer phd thesis.
Servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Unlike slaves, they were freed after their term of service expired or was bought out, their children did not inherit their status, and on their release from contract they received "a year's provision of corn, double apparel, tools necessary", and a small cash payment called "freedom dues". Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom.
By the s and s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own.
Inthe Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of lifetime slavery when they sentenced John Puncha Negro, norbert schirmer phd thesis, to lifetime servitude under his master Hugh Gwyn for running away.
In the Spanish Florida some Spanish married or had unions with PensacolaCreek or African women, both slave and free, and their descendants created a mixed-race population of mestizos and mulattos. The Spanish encouraged slaves from the colony of Georgia to come to Florida as a refuge, promising freedom in exchange for conversion to Catholicism. King Charles II issued a royal proclamation freeing all slaves who fled to Spanish Florida and accepted conversion and baptism.
Most went to the area around St. Augustinebut escaped slaves also reached Pensacola. Augustine had mustered an all-Black militia unit defending Spanish Florida as early as One of the Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnsonwould later own one of the first Black "slaves", John Casorresulting from the court ruling of a civil case.
The popular conception of a race-based slave system did not fully develop until the 18th century. The Dutch West India Company introduced slavery in with the importation of eleven Black slaves into New Amsterdam present-day New York City. All the colony's slaves, however, norbert schirmer phd thesis, were freed upon its surrender to the English.
Massachusetts norbert schirmer phd thesis the first English colony to legally recognize slavery in InVirginia passed a law that children of enslaved women took the status of the mother, rather than that of the father, as under common law. This legal principle was called partus sequitur ventrum. By an act ofthe colony ordered all free Blacks deported, virtually defining as slaves all people of African descent who remained in the colony.
In the Spanish Louisiana although there was no movement toward abolition of the African slave trade, Spanish rule introduced a new law called coartaciónwhich allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others. That brought problems to the Spaniards with the French Creoles who also populated Spanish Louisiana, French creoles cited that measure as one of the system's worst elements.
First established in South Carolina ingroups of armed White norbert schirmer phd thesis slave patrols —were formed to monitor enslaved Black people. Slave owners feared that slaves might organize revolts or slave norbert schirmer phd thesisso state militias were formed in order to provide a military command structure and discipline within the slave patrols so they could be used to detect, encounter, and crush any organized slave meetings which might lead to revolts or rebellions.
The earliest African-American congregations and churches were organized before in both northern and southern cities following the Great Awakening. During the s, Africans, both enslaved and free, helped rebellious American colonists secure their independence by defeating the British in the American Revolutionary War.
Activists in the Patriot cause included James ArmisteadPrince Whipple and Oliver Cromwell. In the Spanish LouisianaGovernor Bernardo de Gálvez organized Spanish free Black men into two militia companies to defend New Orleans during the American Revolution. They fought in the battle in which Spain captured Baton Rouge from the British, norbert schirmer phd thesis. Gálvez also commanded them in campaigns against the British outposts in MobileAlabamaand PensacolaFlorida, he recruited slaves for the militia norbert schirmer phd thesis pledging to free anyone who was seriously wounded and promised to secure a low price for coartación buy their freedom and that of others for those who received lesser wounds.
During the s, Governor Francisco Luis Héctor, baron of Carondelet reinforced local fortifications and recruit even more free Black men norbert schirmer phd thesis the militia. Carondelet doubled the number of free Black men who served, creating two more militia companies—one made up of Black members and the other of pardo mixed race.
Serving in the militia brought free Black men one step closer to equality with Whites, allowing them, norbert schirmer phd thesis, for example, the right to carry arms and boosting their earning power, norbert schirmer phd thesis.
However, actually these privileges distanced free Black men from enslaved Blacks and encouraged them to identify with Whites. Slavery had been tacitly enshrined in the U. Slavery, which by then meant almost exclusively Black people, was the most important political issue in the antebellum United Statesleading to one crisis after another. Among these were the Missouri Compromisethe Compromise ofthe Fugitive Slave Actand the Dred Scott decision.
Prior to the Civil Wareight serving presidents owned slaves, a practice protected by the U. due to the Atlantic slave tradeand another ,—, Blacks lived free with legislated limits [54] across the country. for Liberia in West Africa. The slaves not only constituted a large investment, they produced America's most valuable product and export: cotton. They not only helped build the U. Capitolthey built the White House and other District of Columbia buildings.
Washington was a slave trading center, norbert schirmer phd thesis. Emigration of free Blacks to their continent of origin had been proposed since the Revolutionary war. After Haiti became independent, it tried to recruit African Americans to migrate there after it re-established trade relations with the United States.
The Haitian Union was a group formed to promote relations between the countries. The colony was one of the first such independent political entities. It lasted for a number of decades and provided a destination for about Black families emigrating from a number of locations in the United States, norbert schirmer phd thesis.
Innorbert schirmer phd thesis, during the American Civil WarPresident Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation.
The proclamation declared that all slaves in Confederate-held territory were free. Slavery in Union-held Confederate territory continued, at least on paper, until the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment in citizenship to Whites only, [62] [63] the 14th Amendment gave Black people citizenship, norbert schirmer phd thesis, and the 15th Amendment gave Black males the right to vote which would still be denied to all women until While the post-war Reconstruction era was initially a time of progress for African Americans, that period ended in By the late s, Southern states enacted Jim Crow laws to enforce racial segregation and disenfranchisement.
To maintain self-esteem and dignity, African Americans such as Anthony Overton and Mary McLeod Bethune continued to build their own schoolschurchesbanks, social clubs, and other businesses. In the last decade of the 19th century, racially discriminatory laws and racial violence aimed at African Americans began to mushroom in the United States, a period often referred to as the " nadir of American race relations ".
These discriminatory acts included racial segregation—upheld by the United States Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson in —which was legally mandated by southern states and nationwide at the local level of government, voter suppression or disenfranchisement in the southern states, denial of economic opportunity or resources nationwide, and private acts of violence and mass racial violence aimed at African Americans unhindered or encouraged by government authorities.
The desperate conditions of African Americans in the South sparked the Great Migration during the first half of the 20th century which led to a growing African-American community in Northern and Western United States. as a result of race riots that occurred in more than three dozen cities, such as the Chicago race riot of and the Omaha race riot of Overall, Blacks in Northern and Western cities experienced systemic discrimination in a plethora of aspects of life.
Within employment, economic opportunities for Blacks were routed to the lowest-status and restrictive in potential mobility. At the Hampton Negro ConferenceReverend Matthew Anderson said: " the lines along most of the avenues of wage earning are more rigidly drawn in the North than in the South.
Despite discrimination, drawing cards for leaving the hopelessness in the South were the growth of African-American institutions and communities in Northern cities.
Institutions included Black oriented organizations e. The Cotton Club in Harlem was a Whites-only establishment, with Blacks such as Duke Ellington allowed to perform, but to a White audience. By the s, the civil rights movement was gaining momentum.
A lynching that sparked public outrage about injustice was that of Emmett Tillnorbert schirmer phd thesis, a year-old boy from Chicago. Spending the summer with relatives in Money, MississippiTill was killed for allegedly having wolf-whistled at a White woman. Till had been badly beaten, one of his eyes was gouged out, and he was shot in the head.
The visceral response to his mother's decision to have an open-casket funeral mobilized the Black community throughout the U. Newkirk wrote "the trial of his killers became a pageant illuminating the tyranny of White supremacy ". The March norbert schirmer phd thesis Washington for Jobs and Freedom and the conditions which brought it into being are credited with putting pressure on norbert schirmer phd thesis John F.
Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson put his support behind passage norbert schirmer phd thesis the Civil Rights Act of that banned discrimination in public accommodations, norbert schirmer phd thesis, employment, and labor unionsnorbert schirmer phd thesis, and the Voting Rights Act ofwhich expanded federal authority over states to ensure Black political participation through protection of norbert schirmer phd thesis registration and elections.
During the post-war period, many African Americans continued to be economically disadvantaged relative to other Americans. Average Black income stood at 54 percent of that of White workers inand 55 percent in The Sixties saw improvements in the social and economic conditions of many Black Americans.
From toBlack family income rose from 54 to 60 percent of White family income.
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